This
is the text adopted by consensus by the plenary of the Rio Earth Summit
(the United Nations Conference of Environment and Development) on June
14, 1992. This text received further editing and translation into official
UN languages before being presented to the General Assembly of the United
Nations in the autumn of the same year for adoption.
AGENDA 21, CHAPTER 13
MANAGING FRAGILE ECOSYSTEMS:
SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT.
INTRODUCTION
13.1. Mountains are an important source of water, energy
and biological diversity. Furthermore, they are a source of such key resources
as minerals, forest products and agricultural products and of recreation.
As a major ecosystem representing the complex and interrelated ecology
of our planet, mountain environments are essential to the survival of the
global ecosystem.
Mountain ecosystems are, however, rapidly changing; They
are susceptible to accelerated soil erosion, landslides and rapid loss
of habitat and genetic diversity. On the human side, there is widespread
poverty among mountain inhabitants and loss of indigenous knowledge. As
a result, most global mountain areas are experiencing environmental degradation.
Hence, the proper management of mountain resources and socio-economic development
of the people deserves immediate action.
13.2. About 10 per cent of the world's population depends
on mountain resources. A much larger percentage draws on other mountain
resources, including and especially water. Mountains are a storehouse of
biological diversity and endangered species.
13.3. Two programme areas are included in this chapter
to further elaborate the problem of fragile ecosystems with regard to all
mountains of the world. These are:
(a) Generating and strengthening knowledge about the ecology
and sustainable development of mountain ecosystems;
(b) Promoting integrated watershed development and alternative
livelihood opportunities.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Generating and strengthening knowledge about the
ecology and sustainable development of mountain ecosystems
Basis for action
13.4. Mountains are highly vulnerable to human and natural
ecological imbalance. Mountains are the areas most sensitive to
all climatic
changes in the atmosphere. Specific information on ecology, natural resource
potential and socio-economic activities is essential. Mountain and hillside
areas hold a rich variety of ecological systems. Because of their vertical
dimensions, mountains create gradients of temperature, precipitation and
insolation. A given mountain slope may include several climatic
systems -
such as tropical, subtropical, temperate and alpine/- each of which represents
a microcosm of a larger habitat diversity. There is, however, a lack of
knowledge of mountain ecosystems. The creation of a global mountain database
is therefore vital for launching programmes that contribute to the sustainable
development of mountain ecosystems.
Objectives
13.5. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) To undertake a survey of the different forms of soils,
forest, water use, crop, plant and animal resources of mountain ecosystems,
taking into account the work of existing international and regional organizations;
(b) To maintain and generate database and information
systems to facilitate the integrated management and environmental assessment
of mountain. ecosystems, taking into account the work of existing international
and regional organizations;
(c) To improve and build the existing land/water ecological
knowledge base regarding technologies and agricultural and conservation
practices in the mountain regions of the world, with the participation
of local communities;
(d) To create and strengthen the communications network
and information clearing-house for existing organizations concerned with
mountain issues;
(e) To improve coordination of regional efforts to protect
fragile mountain ecosystems through the consideration of appropriate mechanisms,
including regional legal and other instruments;
(f) To generate information to establish databases and
information systems to facilitate an evaluation of environmental risks
and natural disasters in mountain ecosystems.
Activities
(a) Management-related activities
13.6. Governments at the appropriate level, with-the support
of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Strengthen existing institutions or establish new
ones at local, national and regional levels to generate a multidisciplinary
land/water ecological knowledge base on mountain ecosystems;
(b) Promote national policies that would provide incentives
to local people for the use and transfer of environment-friendly technologies
and farming and conservation practices;
(c) Build up the knowledge base and understanding by creating
mechanisms for cooperation and information exchange among national and
regional institutions working on fragile ecosystems;
(d) Encourage policies that would provide incentives to
farmers and local people to undertake conservation and regenerative measures;
(e) Diversify mountain economies, inter/alia, by creating
and/or strengthening tourism, in accordance with integrated management
of mountain areas;
(f) Integrate all forest, rangeland and wildlife activities
in such a way that specific mountain ecosystems are maintained;
(g) Establish appropriate natural reserves in representative
species-rich sites and areas.
(b) Data and information
13.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support
of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Maintain and establish meteorological, hydrological
and physical monitoring analysis and capabilities that would encompass
the climatic diversity as well as water distribution of various mountain
regions of the world;
(b) Build an inventory of
different forms of soils, forests,
water use, and crop, plant and animal genetic resources, giving priority
to those under threat of extinction. Genetic resources should be protected
in situ by maintaining and establishing protected areas and improving traditional
farming and animal husbandry activities and
establishing programmes for
evaluating the potential value of the resources;
(c) Identify hazardous areas that are most vulnerable
to erosion, floods, landslides, earthquakes, snow avalanches and other
natural hazards;
(d) Identify mountain areas threatened by air pollution
from neighbouring industrial and urban areas.
(c) International and regional cooperation
13.8. National Governments and intergovernmental organizations
should:
(a) Coordinate regional and international cooperation
and facilitate an exchange of information and experience among the specialized
agencies, the World Bank, IFAD and other international and regional organizations,
national Governments, research institutions and non-governmental organizations
working on mountain development;
(b) Encourage regional, national and international networking
of people's initiatives and the activities of international, regional and
local non governmental organizations working on mountain development, such
as the United Nations University (UNU), the Woodlands Mountain Institute
(WMI), the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD),
the International Mountain Society (IMS), the African Mountain Association
and the Andean Mountain Association, besides supporting those organizations
in exchange of information and experience;
(c) Protect Fragile Mountain Ecosystems through the consideration
of appropriate mechanisms including regional legal and other instruments.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
13.9. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average
total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional
terms. These are indicative and order of magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including
any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific
strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
13.10. Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should strengthen
scientific research and technological development programmes, including
diffusion through national and regional institutions, particularly in meteorology,
hydrology, forestry, soil sciences and plant sciences.
(c) Human resource development
13.11. Governments at the appropriate level, and with
the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Launch training and extension
programmes in environmentally
appropriate. technologies and practices that would be
suitable to mountain ecosystems;
(b) Support higher education through fellowships and research
grants for environmental studies in mountains and hill areas, particularly
for candidates from indigenous mountain populations;
(c) Undertake environmental education for farmers, in
particular for women, to help the rural population better understand the
ecological. issues regarding the sustainable development of mountain ecosystems.
(d) Capacity-building
13.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should
build up national and regional institutional bases that could carry out
research, training and dissemination of information on the sustainable
development of the economies of fragile ecosystems.
B. Promoting integrated watershed development and alternative
livelihood opportunities
Basis for action
13.13. Nearly half of the world's population is affected
in various ways by mountain ecology and the degradation of watershed areas.
About 10/per/cent of the Earth's population lives in mountain areas with
higher slopes, while about 40/per/cent occupies the adjacent medium- and
lower-watershed areas. There are serious problems of ecological deterioration
in these watershed areas. For example, in the hillside areas of the Andean
countries of South America a large portion of the farming population is
now faced with a rapid deterioration of land resources. Similarly, the
mountain and upland areas of the Himalayas, South-East Asia and East and
Central Africa, which make vital contributions to agricultural production,
are threatened by cultivation of marginal lands due to expanding population.
In many areas this is accompanied by excessive livestock grazing, deforestation
and loss of biomass cover.
13.14. Soil erosion can have a devastating impact on the
vast numbers of rural. people who depend on rain-fed agriculture in the
mountain and hillside areas. Poverty, unemployment, poor health and bad
sanitation are widespread. Promoting integrated watershed development programmes
through effective participation of local people is a key to preventing
further ecological imbalance. 'An integrated approach is needed for conserving,
upgrading and using the natural resource base of land, water, plant, animal
and human resources. In addition, promoting alternative livelihood opportunities,
particularly through development of employment schemes that increase the
productive base, will have a significant role in improving the standard
of living among the large rural population living in mountain ecosystems.
Objectives
13.15. The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) By the year 2000, to develop appropriate land-use
planning and management for both arable and non-arable land in mountain-fed
watershed areas to prevent soil erosion, increase biomass production and
maintain the ecological balance;
(b) To promote income-generating activities, such as sustainable
tourism, fisheries and. environmentally sound mining, and to improve infrastructure
and social services, in particular to protect the livelihoods of local
communities and indigenous people;
(c) To develop technical and institutional arrangements
for affected countries to mitigate the effects of natural disasters through
hazard prevention measures, risk zoning early-warning systems, evacuation
plans and emergency supplies.
Activities
(a) - Management-related activities
13.16. Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and
regional organizations, should:
(a) Undertake measures to prevent soil erosion and promote
erosion control activities in all sectors
(b) Establish task forces or watershed development committees,
complementing existing institutions, to coordinate integrated services
to support local initiatives in animal husbandry, forestry, horticulture
and rural development at all administrative levels;
(c) Enhance popular participation in the management of
local resources through appropriate legislation;
(d) Support non-governmental organizations and other private
groups assisting local organizations and communities in the preparation
of projects that would enhance participatory development of local people;
(e) Provide mechanisms to preserve threatened areas that
could protect wildlife, conserve biological diversity or serve as national
parks;
(f) Develop national policies that would provide incentives
to farmers and local people to undertake conservation measures and to use
environment-friendly technologies;
(g) Undertake income-generating activities in cottage
and agro-processing industries, such as the cultivation and processing
of medicinal and aromatic plants;
(h) Undertake the above activities, taking into account
the need for full participation of women, including indigenous people-
and local communities, in development.
b) Data and information
13.17. Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
. (a) Maintain and establish systematic observation. and
evaluation capacities at the national, state or provincial level to generate
. information for daily operations and to assess the environmental and
socio-economic impacts of projects;
(b) Generate data on alternative livelihoods and diversified
production. systems at the village level on annual and tree crops, livestock,
poultry, beekeeping, fisheries, village industries, markets, transport
and income-earning opportunities, taking fully into account the role of
women and integrating them into the planning and implementation process.
(c) International and regional cooperation
13.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Strengthen the role of appropriate international research
and training institutes such as the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR) and the International Board for Soil
Research and Management (IBSRAM), as well as regional research centres
- such as the Woodland Mountain Institute and. The International Center
for Integrated Mountain Development, in undertaking applied research relevant
to watershed development;
(b) Promote regional cooperation and exchange of data
and information among countries sharing the same mountain ranges and river
basins, particularly those affected by mountain disasters and floods;
(c) Maintain and establish partnerships with. non-governmental
organizations and other private groups working in watershed development.
Means of implementation
(a) Financial and cost evaluation
13.19. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average
total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme
to be about $13 billion including about $1.9 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order
of magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
13.20. Financing for the promotion of alternative livelihoods
in mountain ecosystems should. be viewed as part of a county's anti-poverty
or . alternative livelihoods programme, which is also discussed in chapter/3
(Combating poverty) and chapter/14 (Promoting sustainable agriculture and
rural development) of Agenda 21.
(b) Scientific and technical means
13.21. Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Consider undertaking pilot projects that combine environmental
protection and development functions with particular emphasis on some of
the traditional environmental management practices or systems that have
a good impact on the environment;
(b) Generate technologies for specific watershed and farm
conditions . through a participatory approach involving local men and women,
researchers and extension agents who will carry out experiments and trials
on farm conditions;
(c) Promote technologies of vegetative conservation measures
for erosion prevention, in situ moisture management, improved cropping
technology, fodder production and agroforestry that are low-cost, simple
and easily adopted by local people.
(c) Human resource development
13.22. Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:
(a) Promote a multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral approach
in training and the dissemination of knowledge to local people on a wide
range of issues, such as household production systems, conservation and
utilization of arable and non-arable land, treatment of drainage lines
and recharging of groundwater, livestock management, fisheries, agroforestry
and horticulture;
(b) Develop human resources by providing access to education,
health, energy and infrastructure;
(c) Promote local awareness and preparedness for disaster
prevention and mitigation, combined with the latest available technology
for early - warning and forecasting.
(d) Capacity Building
13.23. Governments at the appropriate level, with the
support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should
develop and strengthen national centres for watershed management to encourage
a comprehensive approach to the environmental, socio-economic, technological,
legislative, financial and administrative aspects and provide support to
policy makers, administrators, field staff and farmers for watershed development.
13.24. The private sector and local communities, in cooperation
with national Governments, should promote local infrastructure development,
including communication networks, mini- or micro-hydro development to support
cottage industries, and access to markets.
Mallory´s
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